#2 - White Dominance

In chapter 2, Howard discusses the idea of White dominance. Howard suggests four reasons for why social dominance exists:

1. "The Minimal Group Paradigm suggests that all human beings are predisposed to form in-groups and out-groups and to respond to other human beings based on these self-created, and sometimes trivial, distinctions" (p. 33).
• Howard says that it is part of our human nature to categorize people into groups. We look for distinctions between people so that we can put them into groups, even if the distinction doesn't really matter.
2. Social Positionality reminds us that everyone has a place in the social hierarchy of dominance and our place in the hierarchy "determines how we construct knowledge, how we come to determine what is real and true" (p. 33).
• According to social positionality, we view the world, construct reality, and give meaning and value to our lives based on our position in social hierarchies. For example, Whites tend to think in terms of power and have a sense of invisibility (meaning that Whites don't see a problem with issues regarding dominance).
3. "Social Dominance Theory places systems of dominance and subordination in an evolutionary context, arguing that such group-based arrangements have been ever-present, and perhaps even inevitable, in human experience" (p. 33-4).
• There are several basic assumptions of this theory. First is that human social systems are predisposed to form social hierarchies. Second, that the top groups in the hierarchies are mostly male. Third, forms of social oppression can be seen as a groups way of showing their dominance. Finally, social hierarchy is a survival strategy.
4. Privilege and Penalty "demonstrates that systems of social dominance are characterized by the differential distribution of rewards and punishments to individuals not on the basis of individual worth but solely as a function of group membership" (p. 34).
• According to Howard and the system of privilege and penalty, "social arrangements of dominance cause privileges to flow to certain groups whether or not those privileges are earned. Likewise, penalties, punishments, and inequities flow to other groups through no fault of their own other than their group membership" (p. 33)

Even though Howard focuses on White dominance, he does point out that dominance is not just a White issue; it is a human phenomenon. Social dominance occurs in all cultures. There are many examples of this today and the following are just a few that Howard shares: the Turkish genocide against the Armenians, the tragic tribal warfare between Hutu and Tutsi forces in Rwanda, and the Chinese occupation in Tibet.

When Howard began this chapter, he started with a story about an White elementary teacher's reaction to diversity in the classroom. Howard says, 

During a multicultural workshop in Austin, Texas, a white elementary teacher, with a tone of intense frustration, said to the group, 'I don't understand all of this talk about differences. Each of my little kindergarten students comes to me with the same stuff. It doesn't matter whether they're black, Hispanic, or White, they each have a brain, a body, and a family. They each get the same curriculum. I treat them all alike. And yet, by the end of the year, and as I watch them move up through the grades, the Blacks and Hispanics fall behind and the White kids do better. They all start with the same basic equipment. What happens? (p. 25)

When reading this story, one may think it sounds pretty good. Yes, all of the students do have a brain, a body, and a family. They do come to us with those things and they come to learn. Maybe with the exception of students with disabilities (and before differentiation was such a big thing), many teachers would treat all of their students the same. But Howard disagrees with this teacher. He says that these students do not come to us with the same stuff. Each student has a different background. They each come from a different culture. There are different races, socioeconomic statuses, and language groups represented. Not all of the students come from a family that grew up in White America. Each student comes with a whole lot of "stuff" that influences who they are, where they come from, and how they learn.

When I think back to one of my aiding placements, I can see that I had a teacher who probably thought a lot like the teacher mentioned in the story above. Each day she gave her students worksheets. She would complain to me about how some students just didn't get it. She had a wide range of students in her classroom - ELL students, English speaking students, students who have lived in America their whole lives, and those who recently came to America. She tried to teach all of these students the same, but had a hard time realizing that she couldn't teach them all the same, just like the teacher above. These students each have their own cultural histories that make up who they are and each student is different. Those students who recently immigrated were used to the way things were in their own culture. Maybe in their culture, their race with the dominant culture, but when they came to America they had to adjust to this idea of White dominance. The student could feel dejected. Yes, each student does come to us with a brain, and a body, and usually some sort of family, but the students are not all the same and we can't teach them like they are.